Is This An Overview?
Mongols were able to conquer a large section of the world,
but Mongols were more than just conquerors.
Mongols were expert administrators, who were able to rule the vast
empire. Many regions were developed
through their efforts. Pillage was not
the goal of the conquests, but to control production which would generate taxes
for the Mongols.
As more developed regions would produce more tax revenue,
Mongols enabled regions productive capacity by connecting and protecting trade
routes and other policies to enhance commerce.
Technology was invested in.
Science and art flourished.
Mongols utilized local laws and traditions. Mongols were tolerant of different faiths. The empire’s revenue was not for the benefit
of the khans, but for the people and empire.
Mongols had a culture of sharing, circulation, and redistribution. A culture that had egalitarian features,
while also reinforcing social rank.
Khans did not accumulate wealth, but dispensed it to prove their worth
to the people.
Succession was hereditary to the heirs of Chinggis Khan, and
meant to be tolerant of competitors. But
succession created tension. Rather than
settle disputes through violence, the groups would separate. Mongols would relinquish claims on the throne
to ensure peace. Showing the resilience
and flexibility of Mongol politics. Four
Mongol groups were formed after Chinggis Khan, with this book focusing on the
group following Chinggis Khan’s eldest son, Jochi.
What Was The Mongol Empire’s Political Structure?
This is a book about the Mongol Empire, focusing on the
legacy of Jochi. The empire after
Chinggis Khan was led by Jochids, Chagatayids, Ögödeids, and Tuluids. Each named after a Chinggis Khan son. Jochi was the eldest son of Chinggis
Khan.
The title of Chinggis was indigenous, rather than given by
another power. A title that was used as
a statement, that Mongol would not be subordinate. The regime had to two goals, to make the
ruling status inheritable to the descendants of Chinggis Khan, and to
intergrade new members to expand their work force and army. Descendants had the opportunity to become
sovereign, but not all could rule.
Chinggis Khan’s lineage became known as the golden lineage.
Jochi made an error in battle, and afterwards. Jochi destroyed the city of Urgench, while it
was supposed to be taken for its trade and intelligentsia. When sharing the plunder, the shares were
divided among the brothers, and none was given to Chinggis. Chinggis was slighted, but forgave the
sons. Then, diluted Jochi’s claim to
power, made sure that tax receipts were shared with other brothers. Making Jochi an equal rather than chief
heir. Without a clear succession, and
the alienation of Jochi, laid the foundations for autonomy. Jochi still had claims to power, even without
being heir. Had exclusive rights to
territories, and shares of revenues from sibling territories much like they had
a claim on the revenues of Jochi territory.
Jochi and those that followed Jochi moved to a region
between Volga-Ural and Black Sea. There
they established a Mongol administration that was more independent than other
Mongol regions. The Jochid would
maintain Mongol practices, develop a sophisticated social organization, and
sustain their own imperial formation.
Known as ulus Jochi, or Orda, the Horde.
Mongol groups were not identical, but shared economic
strategies, social institutions, and political culture. An ulus was the sovereign political community
that included all people. Based on a
network of oboqs. Groups whose members
shared single, often legendary, ancestry.
Groups followed their own leaders, but unity was possible.
After the 1206 quriltai, political power was concentrated in
the golden lineage, involving extended negotiations with elites. Khan made decisions in assemblies. Major decisions were not made without the
Khan. Quriltai was also an event when
the khan would distribute positions, rewards, punishments, and missions. This was a meeting in which foreigners were
not allowed, to not share internal politics with them.
The Horde was socially diverse and multiethnic, but the
leadership came from dominant steppe clans, mostly Mongol subgroups. They were called begs. As the Horde became oligarchical, the begs
gained power. Begs ruled with the khans
in a governing council. Khan’s primacy
was acknowledged by being descendent of Chinggis Khan, but that did not make a
khan all-powerful. They needed to
associate with powerful begs.
Administration had a hierarchy that was important to the
Mongols, between seniors and juniors, but the hierarchy was subject to
revision. Commoners could be associated
with prestigious lineages, but birth rank remained conspicuous. Social hierarchy that also differentiated
between long status and newcomers. Mongol
loyal servants were the keshigten. The
keshig collaborated with and served Jochids, but they were separate. Intermarriage was rare, and did not lead to
familial political alliance.
Succession after Chinggis created political tension. To avoid civil war and bloodshed, the groups
divided. Mongols were able to relinquish
claims on the throne, to enable peace.
As the steppe was large, rivals could part amicably, and seek relative
autonomy. Even cooperate with the
broader ulus. Generally, when an empire
breaks apart, the empire ceases to be.
That is not the case for the Mongol empire. Mongol’s breaking apart was a show of
resilience. Showing mobility and
flexibility of Mongol politics.
Alliances could be made, but were fluid. What was durable was vengeance, as blood
feuds spanned generations. Temüjin,
who would become Chinggis Khan, gained influence when taking vengeance for the
fall of Temüjin’s
family.
The political process was meant to be tolerant of
successorship competitions. But with
each succession, the process became strained.
Defeated candidates no longer publicly renounced their claim to the
throne. Begs gained power when the khans
Nogay and Toqto were in conflict. Begs
wanted to maintain the Mongol system that the khans threatened in different
ways. Özbek gained power through
murder and political purges. Purges that
created a cycle of vengeance.
How Did Economics Influence Social Status?
The Mongol exchange changed the lives of a large part of the
world. In which people were conquered, and
accepted Mongol domination. An era in
which various fields flourished such as economic, industry, art, medicine, and
various sciences. Mongols invested in
technology and innovated the technologies they found. Manufacturing production increased. Imported products and attracted traders.
Social status was dependent on manufacturing, for what was
worn determined status. Luxuries that
were needed for the political economy, for social order. Trade that was not necessarily for
subsistence. They relied on circulation
and redistribution of goods to reinforce social rank, and create bonds of
dependence. Which also gave people a
reason to invest into the success of the regime. Circulation was also a spiritual
necessity.
Mongol society had generous leaders, because it would
through their generosity that they proved their worth to the people. Not just the leaders, but redistribution was
for all social classes. Khans did not
accumulate wealth, but dispense it. To
keep the wealth in circulation, which brought in more resources than when
retained. Wealth that was meant for the
health of the empire and welfare of the people, not for khan personally.
Mongols shared everything.
Redistributed resources, with more going to higher-status
individuals. Sharing also reinforced
hierarchy, as inheritance ensured concentration of wealth. Sharing system had egalitarian features, such
as commoners got enough distribution to obtain material comfort. Lending and borrowing of animals was
common. Although food production was
distributed upward, poor herders could more easily sustain themselves.
Pillage was not the goal of the conquests. The goal was to encourage the conquered
people to continue doing what they excelled at, and for Mongols to benefit
through taxation. Mongols used conquered
people’s skills and capacities, and expanded their commercial networks. Mongols were building long-distance trade,
even during tumultuous times. Mongols wanted
production and distribution to occur within their territories. Many different communities traded with the
Horde. They were sometimes allies,
sometimes enemies.
As trade depended on merchants, merchants were valued, and
given legal privileges and tax exemptions.
Mongols knew that merchants could not be coerced or controlled, therefor
they were seduced. Placing light taxes
on commercial transactions, and keeping merchants safe. Mongols controlled trade routes, grasslands,
and marketplaces.
The focus of Mongol taxation was whatever a society produce
in surplus. When societies like Russia
could not produce much food in surplus, their furs and crafted objects were
used as payment. Mongols were projecting
power, but did not interfere with economic organizations. Mongols did not extract value to the
detriment of their subjects, but empowered them to produce which would have
enriched the Mongols. Mongols took into
account economic, political, and cultural sensitivities. As economic growth and political stability
was important for the Mongols, the Mongols took their time changing the
people’s habits. Mongols were willing to
invest time and effort.
Coin use tended to be seasonal, and followed trade fairs and
tax collection. Coins were issued when
needed, and only a khan could determine legal tender. When coins were needed, anyone could just
bring in silver to the mint. There was a
fee that the khan would take.
Mongols preferred tents which were warm and intimate, over
sedentary residences. As Mongols camps
could be extended, they could accommodate additional people and different
occupations. The camps security
impressed visitors, along with how respectful the people were toward each
other. The camps lacked fights, along
with no large scale thieves.
Mongols did develop cities to answer increasing sedentary
populations, and for a center of trade, religion, and manufacturing. To advance political and economic goals. Mongols did not use cities are administrative
centers, as they ruled on horseback.
They were expert administrators, with an administration system that
lasted longer than the empire.
Women owned the household, as the husbands needed to visit
their different wife’s and their homes.
Women held decision making power, within all social classes.
How Did Mongols Change Other Peoples, And How Did Other
Peoples Change The Mongols?
Mongols had an integration policy, to welcome new subjects
into their society, no matter their background.
Alliances were based on common interest rather than other basis. Mongols were flexible in their policies and
respected local laws. Settling disputes
with respect to local laws. Jochids did
not impose their values of land on sedentary people.
Absorption of defeated people was needed for growth. The Jochids cajoled and threatened
vassals. Accommodating and exploiting
sedentary workers. Enslaved some while
let others live their lives. Took part
in their craft. Some conquered people
noticed little change, but had to pay taxes. Others were incorporated.
Rejecting Mongol control was perilous, while cooperation was
profitable. There were rebellions, such
as when the Merkit and Naiman decided to go against the Mongols. These were not outsiders to be defeated and
assimilated, but had pledged to assimilate and then reneged. No mercy would be given to the rebels.
Mongols had the concept of Tengri. Tengri was the sky, God, and everything that
stood out. The life force of
warriors. Veneration bound the groups
together, with exclusion form collective rituals meant banishment from social
life.
Horde identity was fluid, and continuously evolving. Using nomadic traditions, but adapting and
departing when needed when faced with challenges that needed different
solutions. Jochid converted to Islam for
political and commercial partners in Muslim regions. Even as they became Muslims, they also
practiced law and spiritual values of the steppe. Islam became a source of collective
identity. Islam gave Jochids legitimacy
to their independence. Generally, Tengri
and Allah were the same.
Islam brought legitimacy to the khan, along with allies for
an intra-Mongol conflict. Although there
was no religion strife, the Muslim support for the Jochids was to contest
Toluids Christian support.
Tammachi were garrison troops that established preliminary
administration and coercive structure. Reading
the region for long-term occupation.
Mongols appointed people to represent their interests, to
obtain their tax revenue. Taking census,
verifying accounts, and controlling payment delivery. Mongols trained hostages to lead and obey, to
return as vassals.
How Did Mongol Empire Effect The Environment?
Mongols were nomadic and herders, who therefore knew how to use
the environment. Mongols feared and
respected the ecosystem. Horde needed to
be mobile, to ensure sufficient grazing while preventing damaging the steppe
ecology. But also had to converge for
political meetings. Political meetings
were scheduled when subsistence was more easily met. Herding was used more for political control,
than herding efficiently.
Jochids took hold of the fertile regions. Rejecting Jochid was to reject was to reject
food supply. Increased population
required grazing at scale, which required more labor. Labor that came from captives.
What Were Mongol Empire’s Military Capabilities?
Used army controlled messenger system called yam. Yam stations were an army controlled
communication networks, that enabled quick communication. With the yam network, they could rule a vast
empire.
Military units were composed of different clans, to limit
opportunities of solidarity and rebellion.
Defeated warriors were absorbed and distributed with the Mongol society.
Mongol custom for warfare was to provide a ritualized
exchange with adversaries before battle.
A form of psychological warfare, with diplomatic means that
terrify. Meant to offend while giving
them a last chance to surrender. After
the adversaries were provoked and reciprocated the anger, therefore justifying
the Mongol riotousness in the endeavor as the offended party.
When the Mongols were outnumbered, they used captives to
make their numbers appear bigger, which would encourage the opposition to
surrender without a fight. Mongols would
display captives outside besieged cities and abuse them, to demoralize the
city’s population. Mongols would use the
captives as shields.
Mongols excelled at sieges and open battles. Their opponents, such as the Bulgars and
other later, knew this. They developed
strategies to prevent engaging the Mongols on these terms.
Mongols decapitated prince’s heads, to show as proof that
the death was true, and to accelerated submission of the people.
When met by unfavorable conditions, such as local resistance
and muddy terrain, they changed their plans.
The Mongols had exceptional scouts, knowing location of
enemies and their strengths and weaknesses.
Opponents such as the Russians, had trouble identifying the location and
number of Mongols.
Mongols attacked villages and small fortifications before
focusing their siege unto a capital.
Without surrounding support, capitals lacked supplies therefore could
not hold out for long. The Mongols took
the supplies for themselves, that was also used when moving to the next target.
Mongols fought during cold-weather, used cold-weather
warfare. Mongols attacked when their
opponents were unprepared, and were ready to retreat when needed. Adapted to climactic differences, moved to
hospitable terrain. Mongol warfare
season was opposite of Russian. Russians
used peasants, who were able to fight in spring and early summer as they worked
on the field afterward. Russians were not
expected to fight during the coldest months, as they stayed indoors. The Mongols fought during the cold season,
while retreating in the late spring and summer for milking season.
How Did The Jochid Effect Russia?
For various people, taxation was more acceptable than
violent domination. Russians understood
that Mongol regime would be more stable than their own. Russia began to develop under Mongol
rule. It was Mongol protection,
politics, and trade policies that developed Russia. Jochid influenced Russia by connecting and
integrating market. By letting Russian
landowners to keep their domains intact, Mongols meant to share rewards of their
conquests.
The Jochid relied on the Russians to collect the taxes. Mongols gave the clergy tarkhan status. Exempting them from taxation, and military
conscripts. In return, the clergy
legitimized the Mongol regime.
When Mongol rule was dissipating, Russians leadership sought
for sovereignty. Russians used their
Christian religion against the Muslim and foreign influence. The people did not necessarily want to remove
the Mongols. Religion, citizens, and
their economy were developed because of the Mongols. It was through the Mongols that Romanovs were
able to consolidate power.
Why Did Mongol Influence Decline?
During the 1350s, there was a period of bulqaq,
anarchy. Facing plague, rebellions, and
succession struggles. With many threats,
the Mongols used their strategy of retreating.
Not as a reflection of panic, but of strategic withdrawal. Less of an ejection from the region, but to
focus their efforts on facing dangerous adversaries.
During the 1340s-1350s, Mongols were abandoning cities due
to plague, the Black Death. The plague
traveled further than before, because of Mongol activities. Mongol movements, ecological changes, and
trade connections brought more interactions between humans and other animals
with more people. Mongols already knew
how to respond to contagious diseases, which included quarantining people. Regions were facing not just epidemics, but
also natural disasters. The public held
the Mongols responsible. For mismanaging
resources.
Even with ecological struggles, bulqaq was a succession
struggle. The khans were purging their
competitors. Khan’s purges prevented a
strong ruling class, which opened them to rebellion and other forms of strife. Birdibek did more damage in a short time than
the plague had. Birdibek eliminated
every competitor for the throne, which horrified his own people. Political assassinations provoked
retaliation, which created cycles of revenge due to Mongol culture of seeking
vengeance. As the Mongol Empire became
more authoritarian, less people were willing to support the Mongol Empire.
As the empire was dissipating, Mongol influence was reduced,
but did not disappear. Some regions did
break away. Other Regions took part in
the Mongol system rather than seek to destroy it.
Caveats?
As a cultural history with diverse
details, there can be difficulty in keeping track of who did what, and the
names and function of social institutions.
As political alliances shifted frequently, it can be difficult to follow
the political spheres of influence.
There are parts of
the book that provide many details on a few events, while other parts provide a
quick succession of sequences of events.
Tracking the sequence of events can be difficult, but the implications
of the events are provided.
